Selected Reading

AAP. Chemical-biological terrorism and its impact on children: a subject review. Pediatrics 2000;105(3):662-70

Agarwal R, Eswaramoorthy S, Kumaran D, et al. Structural analysis of botulinum neurotoxin type E catalytic domain and its mutant Glu212-Gln reveals the pivotal role of Glu212 carboxylate in the catalytic pathway. Biochemistry 2004 Jun 1;43(21):6637-44

Alberts B. Modeling attacks on the food supply. (Editorial) Proc Natl Acad Sci 2005 (published online Jun 28) (pertains to Wein article below)

Alexeter Technologies

Allergan, Inc. Botox information

Angulo FJ, Getz J, Taylor JP, et al. A large outbreak of botulism: the hazardous baked potato. J Infect Dis 1998;178(1):172-7

Arnon SS, Midura TF, Damus K. Honey and other environmental risk factors for infant botulism. J Pedriatr 1979 Feb;94(2):331-6

Arnon SS, Schechter R, Inglesby TV, et al, for the Working Group on Civilian Biodefense. Botulinum toxin as a biological weapon: medical and public health management. JAMA 2001;285(8):1059-70

Arnon SS, Schechter R, Maslanka SE, et al. Human botulism immune globulin for the treatment of infant botulism. N Engl J Med 2006 Feb 2;354(5):462-71

Artin I, Bjorkman P, Cronqvist J, et al. First case of type E wound botulism diagnosed using real-time PCR. J Clin Microbiol 2007 Nov;45(11):3589-94

ASM. Sentinel laboratory guidelines for suspected agents of bioterrorism: packing and shipping infectious substances, diagnostic specimens, and biological agents.

Aureli P, Fenicia L, Pasolini B, et al. Two cases of type E infant botulism caused by neurotoxigenic Clostridium butyricum in Italy. J Infect Dis 1986;154(2):207-11

Bagramyan K, Barash JR, Arnon SS, et al. Attomolar detection of botulinum toxin type A in complex biological matrices. PLoS ONE 2008 Apr 30;3(4):e2041

Baldwin MR, Tepp WH, Przedpelski A, et al. Subunit vaccine against the seven serotypes of botulism. Infect Immun 2008 Mar;76(3):1314-8

Barash JR, Arnon SS. Dual toxin-producing strain of Clostridium botulinum type Bf isolated from a California patient with infant botulism. J Clin Microbiol 2004 Apr;42(4):1713-5

Barash JR, Tang TW, Arnon SS. First Case of Infant Botulism Caused by Clostridium baratii Type F in California. J Clin Microbiol 2005 Aug;43(8):4280-2

Barr JR, Moura H, Boyer AE, et al. Botulinum neurotoxin detection and differentiation by mass spectrometry. Emerg Infect Dis 2005 Oct;11(10):1578-83

Barr JR, Moura H, Boyer AE, et al. Botulinum neurotoxin detection and differentiation by mass spectrometry. Emerg Infect Dis 2005 Oct;11(10):1578-83

Barr JR, Moura H, Boyer AE, et al. Fast detection and differentiation of butulinum neurotoxins A, B, E and F using mass spectrometry-based methods. Presented before International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases 2004. Feb 29?Mar 3, 2004, Atlanta, Ga

Bartlett JC. Infant botulism in adults. N Engl J Med 1986;315(4):254-5

Bianco MI, Luquez C, de Jong LI, et al. Presence of Clostridium botulinum spores in Matricaria chamomilla (chamomile) and its relationship with infant botulism. Int J Food Microbiol 2008 Feb 10;121(3):357-60

Black RE, Gunn RA. Hypersensitivity reactions associated with botulinal antitoxin. Am J Med 1980;69:567-70

Borodic G. Myasthenic crisis after botulinum toxin. (Letter) Lancet 1998;352:1832

Breidenbach MA, Brunger AT. Substrate recognition strategy for botulinum neurotoxin serotype A. Nature 2004 Dec 16;432(7019):925-9

Brett MM, Hood J, Brazier JS, et al. Soft tissue infections caused by spore-forming bacteria in injecting drug users in the United Kingdom. Epidemiol Infect 2005 Aug;133(4):575-82

Brett MM, McLauchlin J, Harris A, et al. A case of infant botulism with a possible link to infant formula milk powder: evidence for the presence of more than one strain of Clostridium botulinum in clinical specimens and food. J Med Microbiol 2005 Aug;54(Pt 8):769-76

Brook I. Infant botulism. J Perinatol 2007 Mar;27(3):175-80

Brunger AT, Breidenbach MA, Jin R, et al. Botulinum neurotoxin heavy chain belt as an intramolecular chaperone for the light chain. PLoS Pathog 2007 Sep 28;3(9):e113

Campbell WW, Swift TR. Differential diagnosis of acute weakness. South Med J 1981;74(11):13715

CDC. Biosafety in microbiological and biomedical laboratories (BMBL). Ed 4, Apr 1999. Section VIIA: Bacterial agents: Clostridium botulinum

CDC. Botulism associated with commercial carrot juice--Georgia and Florida, September 2006. MMWR Dispatch 2006 Oct 6;55:1-2

CDC. Botulism associated with commercially canned chili sauce--Texas and Indiana, July 2007. MMWR 2007 Jul 30;56(Dispatch):1-3

CDC. Botulism from home-canned bamboo shoots: Non province, Thailand, March 2006. MMWR 2006 Apr 14;55(14):389-92

CDC. Botulism in the United States, 1899-1996: Handbook for epidemiologists, clinicians, and laboratory workers. Atlanta, Ga: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1998.

CDC. Case definitions for infectious conditions under public health surveillance. MMWR 1997;46(RR10):1-55

CDC. Emergency response

CDC. Formulary: Products distributed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

CDC. Infant botulism: New York City, 2001-2002. MMWR 2003 Jan 17;52(02);21-4

CDC. Laboratory Response Network for bioterrorism

CDC. Laboratory security and emergency response guidance for laboratories working with select agents. MMWR 2002 Dec 6;51(RR-19):1-6

CDC. Medical examiners, coroners, and biologic terrorism: a guidebook for surveillance and case management. MMWR 2004 Jun 11;53(RR08):1-27

CDC. Outbreak of botulism type E associated with eating a beached whale: western Alaska, July 2002. MMWR 2003 Jan 17;52(02):24-6

CDC. Pentavalent (ABCDE) botulinum toxoid. CDC Drug Service. Rev Oct 15, 1999

CDC. Select Agent Program

CDC. Specimen selection table

CDC. Wound botulism among black tar heroin users: Washington, 2003. 2003 Sep 19;52(37):885-6

CDC/ASM/APHL. Sentinel laboratory guidelines for suspected agents of bioterrorism: bolulinum toxin

Chai Q, Arndt JW, Dong M, et al. Structural basis of cell surface receptor recognition by botulinum neurotoxin B. Nature 2006, published online Dec 13

Chao HY, Wang YC, Tang SS, et al. A highly sensitive immuno-polymerase chain reaction assay for Clostridium botulinum neurotoxin type A. Toxicon 2004 Jan;43(1):27-34

Cherington M. Clinical spectrum of botulism. Muscle Nerve 1998:21;701-10

Chia JK, Clark JB, Ryan CA, et al. Botulism in an adult associated with food-borne intestinal infection with Clostridium botulinum. N Engl J Med 1986;315(4):239-41

Chou JH, Hwant PH, Malison MD. An outbreak of type A foodborne botulism in Taiwan due to commercially preserved peanuts. Int J Epidemiol 1988;17:899-902

Clemmens MR, Bell L. Infant botulism presenting with poor feeding and lethargy: a review of 4 cases. Pediatr Emerg Care 2007 Jul;23(7):492-4

Craven KE, Ferreira JL, Harrison MA, et al. Specific detection of Clostridium botulinum types A, B, E, and F using the polymerase chain reaction. J AOAC Int 2002 Sep-Oct;85(5):1025-8

Dahlenborg M, Borch E, Radstrom P. Development of a combined selection and enrichment PCR procedure for Clostridium botulinum Types B, E, and F and its use to determine prevalence in fecal samples from slaughtered pigs. Appl Environ Microbiol 2001; 67(10):4781-8

Darby SM, Miller ML, Allen RO. Forensic determination of ricin and the alkaloid marker ricinine from castor bean extracts. J Forensic Sci 2001 Sep;46(5):1033-42

Davis LE. Botulism. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2003 Jan;5(1):23-31

Dezfulian M, Bartlett JG. Identification of toxigenic Clostridium botulinum type E by enzyme immunoassay. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1991;14(1):11-5

Dickerson TJ, Janda KD. The use of small molecules to investigate molecular mechanisms and therapeutic targets for treatment of botulinum neurotoxin A intoxication. ACS Chem Biol 2007 Apr 24;2(4):359-69

Dong M, Richards DA, Goodnough MC, et al. Synaptotagmins I and II mediate entry of botulinum neurotoxin B into cells. J Cell Biol 2003 Sep 29;162(7):1293-303

Dong M, Yeh F, Tepp WH, et al. SV2 is the protein receptor for botulinum neurotoxin A. Science 2006;312(5773):592-6.

Felz MW, Davis Smith C, Swift TR. A six-year-old girl with tick paralysis. N Engl J Med 2000;342(2):90-4

Fenicia L, Anniballi F, De Medici D, et al. SYBR green real-time PCR method to detect Clostridium botulinum type A. Appl Environ Microbiol 2007 May;73(9):2891-6

Fenicia L, Franciosa G, Pourshaban M, et al. Intestinal toxemia botulism in two young people, caused by Clostridium butyricum type E. Clin Infect Dis 1999 Dec;29(6):1381-7

Ferreira JL, Eliasberg SJ, Edmonds P, et al. Comparison of the mouse bioassay and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay procedures for the detection of type A botulinal toxin in food. J Food Prot 2004 Jan;67(1):203-6

Ferreira JL, Eliasberg SJ, Harrison MA, et al. Detection of preformed type A botulinal toxin in hash brown potatoes by using the mouse bioasssay and a modified ELISA test. J AOAC Int 2001;84(5):1460-4

Ferreira JL, Maslanka S, Johnson E, et al. Detection of botulinal neurotoxins A, B, E, and F by amplified enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay: collaborative study. J AOAC Int 2003 Mar-Apr;86(2):314-31

Franciosa G, Ferreira JL, Hatheway CL. Detection of type A, B, and E botulism neurotoxin genes in Clostridium botulinum and other Clostridium species by PCR: evidence of unexpressed type B toxin genes in type A toxigenic organisms. J Clin Microbiol 1994;32(8):1911-7

Franz DR, Jahrling PB, Friedlander AM, et al. Clinical recognition and management of patients exposed to biological warfare agents. JAMA 1997;278(5):399-411

Franz DR, Pitt LM, Clayton MA, et al. Efficacy of prophylactic and therapeutic administration of antitoxin for inhalation botulism. In: DasGupta BR, ed. Botulism and tetanus neurotoxins: neurotransmission and biomedical aspects. New York, NY: Plenum Press, 1993:473-6

Glik DC, Drury A, Cavanaugh C, et al. What not to say: risk communication for botulism. Biosecur Bioterror 2008 Mar;6(1):93-107

Gottlieb SL, Kretsinger K, Tarkhashvili N, et al. Long-term outcomes of 217 botulism cases in the Republic of Georgia. Clin Infect Dis 2007 Jul 15;45(2):174-80

Green J, Spear H, Brinson RR. Human botulism (type F)?a rare type. Am J Med 1983;75:893-5

Griffin PM, Hatheway CL, Rosenbaum RB, et al. Endogenous antibody production to botulinum toxin in an adult with intestinal colonization botulism and underlying Crohn?s disease. J Infect Dis 1997 Mar;175(3):633-7

Gupta A, Sumner CJ, Castor, et al. Adult botulism type F in the United States, 1981-2002. Neurology 2005 Dec 13;65(11):1694-700

Hall JD, McCroskey LM, Pincomb BJ, et al. Isolation of an organism resembling Clostridium barati which produces type F botulinal toxin from an infant with botulism. J Clin Microbiol 1985;21(4):654-5

Halpern JO, Neale EA. Neurospecific binding, internalization, and retrograde transport. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1995;195:221-42

Hatheway CL, Johnson EA. Clostridium: the spore-bearing anaerobes. In: Collier L, Ballows A, Sussman M, eds. Topley & Wilson?s microbiology and microbial infections. Ed 9. New York, NY: Oxford University Press,1998:731-82

Hatheway CL, Snyder JD, Seals JE, et al. Antitoxin levels in botulism patients treated with trivalent equine botulinum antitoxin to toxin types A, B, and E. J Infect Dis 1984 Sep;150(3):407-12

HHS. 42 CFR Part 73: Possession, use, and transfer of select agents and toxins. Interim Final Rule. Fed Reg 2002 Dec 13;240(67):76885-905

HHS. HHS awards BioShield contract for botulism antitoxin. Jun 1, 2006

Hill KK, Smith TJ, Helma CH, et al. Genetic diversity among botulinum neurotoxin-producing Clostridial strains. J Bacteriol 2007 Feb;189(3):818-32

Horman A, Nevas M, Lindstrom M, et al. Elimination of botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) type B from drinking water by small-scale (personal-use) water purification devices and detection of BoNT in water samples. Appl Environ Microbiol 2005 Apr;71(4):1941-5

Hughes JM, Blumenthal JR, Merson MH, et al. Clinical features of types A and B food-borne botulism. Ann Intern Med 1981;95:442-5

Idaho Technology, Inc. R.A.P.I.D. polymerase chain reaction system

Infant Botulism Treatment and Prevention Program

Jahn R. A neuronal receptor for botulinum toxin. (Perspective) Science 2006 Apr 28;312(5773):540-1

Jin R, Rummel A, Binz T, et al. Botulinum neurotoxin B recognizes its protein receptor with high affinity and specificity. Nature 2006, published online Dec 13

Johnson R, Clay S, Arnon S. Diagnosis and management of infant botulism. Am J Dis Child 1979;133:586-93

Kalluri P, Crowe C, Reller M, et al. An outbreak of foodborne botulism associated with food sold at a salvage store in Texas. Clin Infect Dis 2003 Dec 1;37(11):1490-5

Keller JE. Characterization of new formalin botulinum neurotoxin toxoids. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2008 (published online Jul 30)

Keller JE. Recovery from botulinum neurotoxin poisoning in vivo. Neuroscience 2006;139(2):629-37

Kirma N, Ferreira JL, Baumstark BR. Characterization of six type A strains of Clostridium botulinum that contain type B toxin gene sequences. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2004 Feb 16;231(2):159-64

Kobayashi R, Kohda T, Kataoka K, et al. A novel neurotoxoid vaccine prevents mucosal botulism. J Immunol 2005 Feb 15;174(4):2190-5

Koepke R, Sobel J, Arnon SS. Global occurrence of infant botulism, 1976-2006. Pediatrics 2008 Jul;122(1):e73-82

Kongsaengdao S, Samintarapanya K, Rusmeechan S, et al. An outbreak of botulism in Thailand: clinical manifestations and management of severe respiratory failure. Clin Infect Dis 2006 Nov 15;43(10):1247?56

Kudrow DB, Henry KA, Haake DA, et al. Botulism associated with Clostridium botulinum sinusitis after intranasal cocaine abuse. Ann Intern Med 1988;109:984-5

Kukreja RV, Singh BR. Comparative role of neurotoxin-associated proteins in the structural stability and endopeptidase activity of botulinum neurotoxin complex types A and E. Biochemistry 2007 (published online Nov 16)

Lacy DB, Tepp W, Cohen AC, et al. Crystal structure of botulinum neurotoxin type A and implications for toxicity. Nat Struct Biol 1998; 5(10):898-902

Lindstrom M, Keto R, Markkula A, et al. Multiplex PCR assay for detection and identification of Clostridium botulinum types A, B, E, and F in food and fecal material. Appl Environ Microbiol 2001; 67(12):5694-

Lindstrom M, Kiviniemi K, Korkeala H. Hazard and control of group II (non-proteolytic) Clostridium botulinum in modern food processing. Int J Food Microbiol 2006 Apr 15;108(1):92-104.

Lindstrom M, Korkeala H. Laboratory diagnostics of botulism. Clin Microbiol Rev 2006 Apr;19(2):298-314

Liu W, Montana V, Chapman E, et al. Botulinum toxin type B micromechanosensor. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2003 Nov 11;100(23):13621-5

Liu W, Montana V, Chapman ER, et al. Botulinum toxin type B micromechanosensor. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2003 (published online Oct 22, 2003)

Ma L, Zhang G, Sobel J, et al. Evaluation of the effect of acetylsalicylic acid on Clostridium botulinum growth and toxin production. J Food Prot 2007 Dec;70(12):2860-3

MacDonald KL, Cohen ML, Blake PA. The changing epidemiology of botulism in the United States. Am J Epidemiol 1986 Nov;124(5):794-9

MacDonald KL, Rutherford GW, Friedman SM, et al. Botulism and botulism-like illness in chronic drug users. Ann Intern Med 1985;102:616-8

MacDonald KL, Spengler RF, Hatheway CL, et al. Type A botulism from sauteed onions: clinical and epidemiologic observations. JAMA 1985;253(9):1275-8

Macdonald TE, Helma CH, Licknor LO, et al. Differentiation of Clostridium botulinum serotype A strains by multiple-locus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis. Appl Environ Microbiol 2008 Feb;74(3):875-82

Mann J. Prolonged recovery from type A botulism. (letter) N Engl J Med 1983 Dec 15;309(24):1522-3

Mann JM, Martin S, Hoffman R, et al. Patient recovery from type A botulism: morbidity assessment following a large outbreak. Am J Pub Health 1981;71(3):266-9

Maselli RA, Bakshi N. American Association of Electrodiagnostic Medicine (AAEM) case report 16: botulism. Muscle Nerve 2000 Jul;23(7):1137-44

Mason JT, Xu L, Sheng ZM, et al. A liposome-PCR assay for the ultrasensitive detection of biological toxins. Nat Biotechnol 2006 May;24(5):555-7

McCroskey LM, Hatheway CL, Woodruff BA, et al. Type F botulism due to neurotoxigenic Clostridium baratii from an unknown source in an adult. J Clin Microbiol 1991;29:2618-20

McCroskey LM, Hatheway CL. Laboratory findings in four cases of adult botulism suggest colonization of the intestinal tract. J Clin Microbiol 1988;26:1052-4

McLaughlin JB, Sobel J, Lynn T, et al. Botulism type E outbreak associated with eating a beached whale, Alaska. Emerg Infect Dis 2004 Sep;10(9):1685-7

Merson MH, Dowell VR. Epidemiologic, clinical, and laboratory aspects of wound botulism. N Engl J Med 1973;289:1005-10

Middlebrook JL, Franz DR. Botulinum toxin. In: Sidell FR, Takafuji ET, Franz DR, eds. Medical aspects of chemical and biological warfare. Washington, DC: Office of the Surgeon General, 1997:643-54

Middlebrook JL, Franz DR. Botulinum toxins. In: Zajtchuk R, Bellamy RF, eds. Textbook of military medicine: medical aspects of chemical and biological warfare. Chap 33. Washington, DC: Office of the Surgeon General, Borden Institute, Walter Reed Army Medical Center.

Midura TF, Nygaard GS, Wood RM, et al. Clostridium botulinum type F: isolation from venison jerky. Appl Microbiol 1972 Aug;24(2):165-7

Morse SA, Kellogg RB, Perry S, et al. Detecting biothreat agents: the Laboratory Response Network. ASM News 2003 Sep;69(9):433-7

Nevas M, Lindstrom M, Virtanen A, et al. Infant botulism acquired from household dust presenting as sudden infant death syndrome. J Clin Microbiol 2005 Jan;43(1):511-3

New Horizon Diagnostics. Smart II Botulinum Toxin

Niska RW, Burt CW. Training for terrorism-related conditions in hospitals: United States, 2003-04. Adv Data 2006 Dec 11;(380):1-9

Nowakowski A, Wang C, Powers DB, et al. Potent neutralization of botulinum neurotoxin by recombinant oligoclonal antibody. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2002 Aug 20;99(17):11346-50

O'Brien KK, Higdon NL, Halverson JJ. Recognition and management of bioterrorism infections. Am Fam Physician 2003 May 1;67(9):1927-34

O'Mahony M, Mitchell E, Gilbert RJ, et al. An outbreak of foodborne botulism associated with contaminated hazelnut yoghurt. Epidemiol Infect 1990;104:389-95

Osborn Scientific Group

Park JB, Simpson LL. Inhalational poisoning by botulinum toxin and inhalation vaccination with its heavy-chain component. Infect Immun 2003 Mar;71(3):1147-54

Park JB, Simpson LL. Inhalational poisoning by botulinum toxin and inhalation vaccination with its heavy-chain component. Infect Immun 2003 Mar;71(3):1147-54

Passaro DJ, Werner SB, McGee J, et al. Wound botulism associated with black tar heroin among injecting drug users. JAMA 1998;279(11):859-63

Paul CJ, Twine SM, Tam KJ, et al. Flagellin diversity in Clostridium botulinum groups I and II: a new strategy for strain identification. Appl Environ Microbiol 2007 May;73(9):2963-75

Peruski AH, Johnson LH, Peruski LF. Rapid and sensitive detection of biological warfare agents using time-resolved fluorescence assays. J Immunol Methods 2002 May 1;263(1-2):35-41

Pier CL, Tepp WH, Bradshaw M, et al. Recombinant holotoxoid vaccine against botulism. Infect Immun 2008 Jan;76(1):437-442

Pittman PR, Hack D, Mangiafico J, et al. Antibody response to a delayed booster dose of anthrax vaccine and botulinum toxoid. Vaccine 2002 May 15;20(16):2107-15

Rao S, Starr RL, Morris MG, et al. Variations in expression and release of botulinum neurotoxin in Clostridium botulinum type A strains. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2007 Jun;4(2):201-7

Ravichandran E, Al-Saleem FH, Ancharski DM, et al. Trivalent vaccine against botulinum toxin serotypes A, B, and E that can be administered by the mucosal route. Infect Immun 2007 Jun;75(6):3043-54

Robinson RF, Nahata MC. Management of botulism. Ann Pharmacother 2003 Jan;37(1):127-31

Roblot F, Popoff M, Carlier JP, et al. Botulism in patients who inhale cocaine: the first cases in France. Clin Infect Dis 2006 Sep 1;43(5):e51?2

Rummel A, Eichner T, Weil T, et al. Identification of the protein receptor binding site of botulinum neurotoxins B and G proves the double-receptor concept. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2007 Jan 2;104(1):359-64

Schantz EJ, Johnson EA. Properties and use of botulinum toxin and other microbial neurotoxins in medicine. Microbiol Rev 1992;56(1):80-99

Schecter R, Arnon SS. Commentary: Where Marco Polo meets Meckel: type E botulism from Clostridium butyricum. Clin Infect Dis 1999 Dec;29(6):1388-93

Schiavo G, Rossetto O, Montecucco C. Clostridial neurotoxins as tools to investigate the molecular events of neurotransmitter release. Semin Cell Biol 1994; 5(4):221-9

Schiavo G, Rossetto O, Tonello F, et al. Intracellular targets and metalloprotease activity of tetanus and botulism neurotoxins. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1995;195:257-74

Schmidt-Nowara WW, Samet JM, Rosario PA. Early and late pulmonary complications of botulism. Arch Intern Med 1983;143:451-6

Sebaihia M, Peck MW, Minton NP, et al. Genome sequence of a proteolytic (Group I) Clostridium botulinum strain Hall A and comparative analysis of the clostridial genomes. Genome Res 2007 (published online May 22)

Sewell DL. Laboratory safety practices associated with potential agents of biocrime or bioterrorism. J Clin Microbiol 2003 Jul;41(7):2801-9

Shaffer N, Wainwright RB, Middaugh JP, et al. Botulism among Alaskan Natives: the role of changing food preparation and consumption practices. West J Med 1990;153:390-3

Shapiro RL, Hatheway C, Becher J, et al. Botulism surveillance and emergency response: a public health strategy for a global challenge. JAMA 1997;278(5):433-5

Shapiro RL, Hatheway C, Swerdlow DL. Botulism in the United States: a clinical and epidemiologic review. Ann Intern Med 1998;129:221-8

Siegel LS. Destruction of botulinum toxins in food and water. In: Hauschild AH, Dodds KL, eds. Clostridium botulinum: ecology and control in foods. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker Inc, 1993:323-41

Siegel LS. Human immune response to botulinum pentavalent (ABCDE) toxoid determined by a neutralization test and by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. J Clin Microbiol 1988;26(11);2341-6

Simpson LL. Identification of the major steps in botulinum toxin action. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2004 Feb;44:167-93

Skinner GE, Gendel SM, Fingerhut GA, et al. Differentiation between types and strains of Clostridium botulinum by riboprinting. J Food Prot 2000;63(10):1347-52

Smith LDS, Sugiyama H. Botulism: The Organism, Its Toxins, the Disease. Ed 2. Springfield, Ill: CC Thomas, 1988

Smith LDS. The occurrence of Clostridium botulinum and Clostridium tetani in the soil of the United States. Health Lab Sci 1978;15(12):74-80

Smith TJ, Hill KK, Foley BT, et al. Analysis of the neurotoxin complex genes in Clostridium botulinum A1-A4 and B1 strains: BoNT/A3, /Ba4 and /B1 clusters are located within plasmids. PLoS ONE 2007 Dec 5;1(12):e1271

Sneath PH, Mair NS, Sharpe ME, and Holt JG, eds. Bergey?s manual of systematic bacteriology, Vol 2. Baltimore, Md: Williams & Wilkins, 1986

Sobel J, Malavet M, John S. Outbreak of clinically mild botulism type E illness from home-salted fish in patients presenting with predominantly gastrointestinal symptoms. Clin Infect Dis 2007 Jul 15;45(2):e14-6

Sobel J, Tucker N, Sulka A, et al. Foodborne botulism in the United States, 1990-2000. Emerg Infect Dis 2004 Sep;10(9):1606-11

Sobel J. Botulism. Clin Infect Dis 2005 Oct 15;41(8):1167-73

Solomon HM, Lilly T Jr. Clostridium botulinum. In: Jackson GH, Merker RI, Bandler R, project coordinators. Bacteriological analytical manual online. Washington DC: FDA CFSAN, Jan 2001

Spika JS, Shaffer N, Nargrett-Bean, et al. Risk factors for infant botulism in the United States. Am J Dis Child 1989 Jul;143(7):828-32

St Louis ME, Peck SHS, Bowering D, et al. Botulism from chopped garlic: delayed recognition of a major outbreak. Ann Intern Med 1988 Mar;108(3):363-8

Stanker LH, Merril P, Scotcher MC, et al. Development and partial characterization of high-affinity monoclonal antibodies for botulinum toxin type A and their use in analysis of milk by sandwich ELISA. J Immunol Methods 2008 Jul 20;336(1):1-8

Tacket CO, Shandera WX, Mann JM, et al. Equine antitoxin use and other factors that predict outcome in type A foodborne botulism. AM J Med 1984;76:794-8

Taysse L, Daulon S, Calvet J, et al. Induction of acute lung injury after intranasal administration of toxin botulinum a complex. Toxicol Pathol 2005;33(3):336-42

Telzak EE, Bell EP, Kautter DA, et al. An international outbreak of type E botulism due to uneveiscerated fish. J Infect Dis 1990 Feb;161(2):340-2

Thompson JA, Filloux FM, Van Orman CB, et al. Infant botulism in the age of botulism immune globulin. Neurology 2005 Jun 28;64(12):2029-32

Townes JM, Cieslak PR, Hatheway CL, et al. An outbreak of type A botulism associated with a commercial cheese sauce. Ann Intern Med 1996;125(7):558-63

Varma JK, Katsitadze G, Moiscrafishvili M, et al. Signs and symptoms predictive of death in patients with foodborne botulism: Republic of Georgia, 1980-2002. Clin Infect Dis 2004 Aug 1;39(3):357-62

Villar RG, Shapiro RL, Busto S, et al. Outbreak of type A botulism and development of a botulism surveillance and antitoxin release system in Argentina. JAMA 1999;281(14):1334-8

Wainwright RB, Heyward WL, Middaugh JP, et al. Food-borne botulism in Alaska, 1947-1985:epidemiology and clinical findings. J Infect Dis 1988;157(6):1158-62

Webb RP, Smith TJ, Wright PM, et al. Protection with recombinant Clostridium botulinum C1 and D binding domain subunit (Hc) vaccines against C and D neurotoxins. Vaccine 2007 May 22;25(21):4273-82

Weber JT, Goodpasture HC, Alexander H, et al. Wound botulism in a patient with a tooth abscess: case report and review. Clin Infect Dis 1993;16:635-9

Wein LM, Liu Y. Analyzing a bioterror attack on the food supply: the case of botulinum toxin in milk. Prac Natl Acad Sci 2005 (published online Jun 28) (see also Alberts editorial above)

Werner SB, Passaro K, McGee J, et al. Wound botulism in California, 1951-1998: recent epidemic in heroin injectors. Clin Infect Dis 2000 Oct;31(4):1018-24

Whitby M, Ruff TA, Street AC, et al. Biological agents as weapons 2: anthrax and plague. Med J Aust 2002 Jun 17;176(2):605-8

Wictome M, Newton KA, Jameson K, et al. Novel assays for the detection of botulinum toxins in foods. Dev Biol Stand 1999; 101:141-5

Wigginton JM, Thill P. Infant botulism: a review of the literature. Clin Pediatr 1993 Nov;32(11):669-74

Wilcox P, Andolfatto G, Fairbarn MS, et al. Long-term follow-up of symptoms, pulmonary function, respiratory muscle strength, and exercise performance after botulism. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989;139:157-63

Willis AW, Crowner B, Brunstrom JE, et al. High dose botulinum toxin A for the treatment of lower extremity hypertonicity in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2007 Nov;49(11):818-22

Wongtanate M, Sucharitchan N, Tantisiriwit K, et al. Signs and symptoms predictive of respiratory failure in patients with foodborne botulism in Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007 Aug;77(2):386-9

Yu YZ, Zhang SM, Sun ZW, et al. Enhanced immune responses using plasmid DNA replicon vaccine encoding the Hc domain of Clostridium botulinum neurotoxin serotype A. Vaccine 2007 Dec 17;25(52):8843-50

Zeng M, Xu Q, Elias M, et al. Protective immunity against botulism provided by a single dose vaccination with an adenovirus-vectored vaccine. Vaccine 2007 Oct 23;25(43):7540-8

Zilinskas RA. Iraq's biological weapons: the past as future? JAMA 1997;278:418-24